On the Nature of Bones — First Draft Translation

ON THE NATURE OF BONES. Bones of the hand: twenty-seven. Of the foot: twenty-four. Of the neck up to the great [vertebra]: seven. Of the loins: five. Of the spine: twenty. Of the head together with the eye-sockets: eight. All together ninety-one; with nails, a hundred and eleven. 1. What we ourselves have learned from the bones of a human being: the vertebrae above the collarbone, together with the great [vertebra], seven; those along the ribs, as many as the ribs, twelve; those along the flanks on the outside, in the region of the hips, in the loins, five. The seed [is like] honeycomb on either side of the bladder; from these, vessels extend on either side of the ureter toward the genitals. Drink [passes] through the pharynx and esophagus; the larynx [leads] to the lung and to the windpipe [artēria]; from these to the tip of the bladder. The liver has five lobes; upon the fourth lobe lies the bile, whose opening leads toward the diaphragm and the heart and the lung; a membrane surrounds the heart. The colon is larger than a dog's; it is suspended from the mesenteries, and these from sinews arising from the spine beneath the belly. The kidneys: from sinews arising from the spine and from the artery. The source of the heart: a congenital vessel extends through the diaphragm, liver, spleen, kidneys, to the hip; around the calf to the instep. Another [vessel] from the heart passes beneath the armpits, collarbones, jugular regions, head, nose, forehead, alongside the ears, shoulders, upper back, chest, belly, through the forearm; the one through the armpits [goes] to the forearm, to the instep. 3. The sprouting of sinews: from the back of the head down alongside the spine, alongside the hip, to the genitals, to the thighs, feet, legs, to the hands; others to the upper arms—some into the flesh, some alongside the fibula to the great toe; those from the flesh to the other toes; others to the shoulder blade, chest, belly, to the bones, to the ligaments; from the genitals alongside the rectum, the socket; some from above the thigh, some from below to the knees, thence drawn together at the knee, to the tendon, heel, feet; some to the fibula; others to the kidneys. These vessels on each side divide in two at their greatest, some on one side of each kidney, some on the other, and they are pierced through into the kidneys. 4. The kidneys have the form of the heart; they too are hollow-chambered. The kidney lies with its hollow parts facing toward the great vessels; from it the vessels that go to the bladder spring out, by which pathway drink was drawn through the vessels into the kidneys; and then just as water is filtered through the kidneys, so it is filtered through these very intestines, which it accompanies. For the passage from them to the bladder is sponge-like, and it is there, as it filters through and is separated off from the blood, that urine [is produced], which is why it is reddish; for there were no other vessels going into the kidneys than those already described, nor any place where the drink could be dissolved and mingled—to the best of my knowledge. Those [vessels] stretching along the ribs run below each of the ribs, not toward the head, but lower down, and arising from the artery. 5. The artery, then, flowing beneath, distributes to the ribs; and from the thick one from the heart, one [branch] runs back inclined toward the left. Then the one [passing] through the middle of the vertebrae travels as far as the tips of the ribs, distributing branches to the ribs not equally to the right and the left; another [distributes] equal branches, but branches off higher up on the right side. Along each collarbone, of the vessels—two above, two below the chest—some branches parted off to the right, some to the left, these more toward the neck; two [branches] more toward the heart, some to the right, some to the left; from each alongside the ribs; and from these, just as the lower ones were divided, until they joined with the one that had run back below from the heart. 7. The hemorrhoidal vessel branched off from this artery for this reason: that it is suspended there, passing through the heart. As for the parts below the ribs, the so-called thick hemorrhoidal vessel again distributes on its own course to the vertebrae, and there it is attached, and no longer hangs free as it does above when going through the liver. Now at the level of the loins, the artery is above; below it is the hemorrhoidal vessel, which has come from the liver through the diaphragm suspended, and travels alongside the right side of the heart up to the collarbones, as a single vessel, except insofar as it communicates with the heart itself. Those that branch from it along its course are more superficial, while those that traverse the cavity of the heart—then from the heart the one on the left sits as a single vessel against the spine, which runs back as far as the upper part of the body, reaching the uppermost ribs; and it has branches extending from itself alongside each rib, arranged in accordance with nature as far as the meeting-place of the chest, both to the left and to the right; and its straight course runs closer to the vertebrae than does the tension of the artery and the vessel from the liver. Toward the lower part of the heart, the straight tension from it runs closer to the vertebrae than does that of the artery; the second, the one alongside the heart, turned toward the lower parts of the diaphragm, those attached toward the spine; from there branches are carried each in a straight line, passing through bones and flesh to one another. The thick vessels are by nature as follows: from the eye alongside the eyebrow, through the back alongside the lung, beneath the chest—the one from the right to the left, the other from the left to the right. 8. The one from the left [goes] through the liver to the kidney and the testicle; the one from the right to the spleen and kidney and testicle; these have their opening at the genitals. From the right nipple to the left hip and to the leg; and from the left to the right. The right eye comes from the left, and the testicle [likewise]; in the same manner from the right [comes] the left. The thickest of the vessels are by nature as follows: there are four pairs in the body. 9. Some of these come from the back of the head, through the neck, outside alongside the spine on either side, arriving at the hips and the legs; then through the shin-bones to the outer ankles and to the feet. One must therefore make vein-cuttings for pains in the back and in the hips, from the hollows of the knees and from the outer ankles. The second vessels [go] from the head alongside the ears, through the neck—called the jugulars—running inside alongside the spine on either side, alongside the loins, to the testicles and the thighs, and through the hollows of the knees from the inner part; then through the shin-bones to the inner ankles and the feet. One must therefore make vein-cuttings for pains from the loins and the testicles, from the hollows of the knees and from the inner ankles. The third vessels [go] from the temples, through the neck, to the shoulder blades; then they come together at the lung, and arrive—the one from the right to the left, beneath the breast, to the spleen and the kidney; the other from the left to the right, from the lung, beneath the breast, to the liver and the kidney; and both of these end at the rectum. The fourth [vessels go] from the front of the head and the eyes, beneath the neck and beneath the collarbones; then from the upper arms beneath the bends [of the elbows]; then through the forearms to the wrists and the fingers; then back again from the fingers through the palms of the hands and the forearms to the bends [of the elbows]; through the upper arms and the lower part to the armpits; and from the upper ribs, one reaches the spleen, the other the liver; then, passing above the belly, both end at the genitals. Such, then, is the nature of the thick vessels. There are also from the belly many vessels of all kinds throughout the body, through which nourishment reaches the body. They also carry from the thick vessels into the belly and the rest of the body, both from the outermost and from the innermost, and those within and those outside distribute to one another. One must therefore make vein-cuttings in the following ways: one should take care in making incisions to cut as far as possible from the places where the pains have been accustomed to arise and blood to collect; for in this way the change would be least sudden and great, and you would shift the habit, so that [the blood] no longer collects in the same place. The hepatic vessel [runs] in the loin as far as the great vertebra below, and distributes to the vertebrae, and from there it is borne aloft through the liver and through the diaphragm to the heart. 10. And it ran straight to the collarbones; from there some [branches go] to the neck, some to the shoulder blades, some bending downward incline alongside the vertebrae and ribs. From the left, one [branch] near the collarbones; from the right, it [reaches] to the same region. Another on each side bending off, another bending off a little lower down—from where the former left off, it supplied the ribs, until bending to the left it meets the one upon the heart itself; bending downward it descends to the vertebrae, until it arrives at the point from which it began to be raised aloft, giving off [branches] to all the remaining ribs, distributing branches on either side alongside each one, being a single vessel—lying more on the left side from the heart for some distance, then below the artery, until it is spent and arrives at the point from which the hepatic vessel was raised. But before reaching there, it divided alongside the last two ribs; and the one going to one side of the vertebrae was spent, the other to the other side was spent. The straight one from the heart stretching toward the collarbones is above the artery—just as at the loins it is below the artery—and from this one [a branch] darts off toward the liver: one toward the gate and the lobe, the other set off in sequence toward the rest, a little below the diaphragm. The diaphragm has grown fast to the liver, which it is not easy to separate. There are two [sets] from the collarbones—some on one side, some on the other—going beneath the chest to the lower belly; where they go from there I do not yet know. The diaphragm straddles the vertebra below the ribs, at the point where the kidney [arises] from the artery. Arteries have sprung from this on either side, having the character of arteries. Running back in some such way from the heart, the hepatic vessel came to an end. From the hepatic vessel, the two greatest [vessels] are carried through the diaphragm suspended—one on one side, the other on the other; and there are many-branched [vessels] through the diaphragm around these, and they have grown above the diaphragm, and these [two] are somewhat more visible. Two thick cords from the brain, beneath the bone of the great vertebra from above, and passing alongside the esophagus more than the artery, on either side, each one converged on itself like one; then they ended at the point where the vertebrae and the diaphragm have grown together; and some uncertain [connections] seemed to me to extend toward the liver and spleen from this junction. Another cord on either side extended alongside the spine from the vertebrae at the level of the collarbone, from the side of the vertebra, and distributed to the ribs; like the vessels, these seem to me to extend through the diaphragm to the mesentery, but I lost them there, and again from the point where the diaphragm had sprouted—being continuous from that point—running along the middle below the artery; the remainder they distributed alongside the vertebrae, like the vessels, until they were spent, having passed all the way through the sacrum. The bones provide the body with stance, uprightness, and form; the sinews [provide] bending, contraction, and extension; the flesh and skin [provide] binding and ordering of all. 11. The vessels, poured through the body, provide pneuma and flow and movement, branching out as many from one; where this one began and where it ended I do not know—for since the vessels form a circle, no beginning has been found. But the offshoots of it—from where they are attached and where they cease in the body, and how the one agrees with these, and in what regions of the body they are stretched—I will make clear. Around the head, running crosswise along the middle, lies the vessel, itself broad and thin, not blood-rich; for it has rooted many fine small vessels into the brain through its sutures, and has spread throughout the whole head as far as the forehead and the temples. 12. It itself is directed toward the back of the head outside alongside the skin of the spine; from there it descends alongside the outer and inner vessel of the jugular regions. On the other side of the ear it branches, and extends thick from the outer side of the jaw; from this, many fine [branches go] to the tongue—either beneath the tongue or beneath the molar teeth. It itself, thick, extends through the collarbone beneath the shoulder blade; and from it a vessel has branched out through the sinew beneath the shoulder-cap, called the shoulder-cap vessel. It itself is blood-full, bloody, and hard to treat, if it ruptures or is torn; for on one side a broad sinew surrounds it, on the other side cartilage; and what lies between them it holds together itself, along with a foamy membrane; since the place is without flesh, it ruptures easily, having no flesh to grow around it; and if blood runs beneath into this part, finding abundant space it has no escape, but hardens; and having hardened it brings about disease. It itself ends as I said before. The one that branched off beneath the shoulder blade has branched out beneath the breasts in dense, fine, interlaced vessels; and passing alongside the cartilage of the shoulder-cap, it itself spreads underneath and extends toward the upper arm, keeping the muscle on the left. The next one branches itself around the shoulder and the upper portion of the elbow; from there it has grown through on either side of the elbow; then again alongside the wrist of the hand; from there flowing off through the whole hand it is rooted in many wandering ways. The original vessel, spreading alongside the spine and through the upper back and the jugular region and the throat, has implanted itself into the heart—a large vessel with many mouths at the heart—and from there has run as a pipe to the opening, which is called the artery through the lung—having little blood and full of pneuma. 13. For in the spaciousness and open texture of the organ [the lung], it is channeled in many parts of the lung, while it has made the other passages cartilaginous. Wherefore something unusual was also carried down into these passages of the lung—whether in the drink or in the passage of pneuma and blood—since the vessels are of such a kind, and the organ is sponge-like and capable of receiving much fluid, and situated above; for a custom has been established regarding the fluids that enter. Furthermore, the blood through these vessels is not under strong pressure; and moving slowly, it does not expel what falls in; these things not being expelled but remaining, a pōros [hard deposit] forms. In this way what is in contact with the nourishment perishes, since this is the approach-route of the larynx, both toward the outside. As the passages are blocked by the pōros, rapid breathing and difficult breathing take hold—here [the breath] being unable to pass out through the nature, there being unable easily to draw it down. From such things come such diseases—for example, asthmas and dry phthisades (dry wasting-diseases). But if the fluid collecting in them becomes more abundant and prevails, so that it cannot, being thickened, congeal, it makes the lung putrid, and the surrounding parts as well, and they become empyic (full of pus) and phthisic (wasting); and these diseases also arise from other causes. From there this vessel covers the lung, and through the two great lobes turned inward beneath the diaphragm, it is stretched upon the spine—white and sinew-like—sending out small vessels through the rest of the body, now condensed, yet taut, penetrating through the vertebrae with dense small vessels into the marrow of the spine by intertwining. 14. The other vessels stretched in the body, drawing together from all the parts toward the spine—each gathering the finest and most unmixed [substance]—discharge it there. And this one, stretched over [the spine], gathers into the same place through the hanging tangles; from there it has been rooted also into the kidneys alongside the bastard rib, in fine and fibrous small vessels, and drawing together what is from there it has grown dense, and then it is made sinew-like toward the rectum, and pressing the constrictors it has implanted itself in them; and it has rooted the bladder and the testicles and the parastates in many-coiled, fine, solid, and fibrous small vessels. From there, what is thickest and most direct of it, turning back, has grown along as a stalk—which is the penis; and in the doubling-back it is lifted into these very same [parts], and through the pubic region upward, beneath the skin of the belly, from the vessel itself, [branches] have set out toward the downward-carrying ones, which are channeled into one another; and through the penis there have grown also thick and fine, dense and curved vessels. 15. In females, it [the vessel] extends together toward the wombs, to the bladder and to the urethra; from there it has gone straight, and in women it is attached around the wombs, while in males it is coiled around the testicles. On account of this nature, this very vessel most contributes to generative [seed]; for being nourished from the most [numerous] and purest parts, having little blood and being hollow and sinew-thick and full of pneuma, and being stretched by the penis, it forces the small vessels depending into the spine, and those being forced, like a cupping-vessel, give out everything into the upper vessel; and [seed] flows together also from the other limbs of the body into this; but the greatest part, as has been said, is gathered from the marrow. Pleasure arises when this vessel is filled with generative matter. Since this vessel is accustomed at other times to be somewhat blood-filled and full of pneuma, when it is filled and warmed and the seed flows down, it presses together what is within itself. And the pneuma that is in it, and the present force, and the warmth, and the tension of the small vessels from all sides produce a tickling sensation. It [the vessel] branched out from itself, and spreading through the upper back and the jugular region alongside the spine, it has interwoven the ribs with many small vessels; and it has condensed the vertebrae through the flesh in crossing fashion, so as to make them nourishing and blood-filled. 16. It itself moves alongside the buttock, through the muscle, submerged beneath the thigh; and at the socket of the thigh at the buttock, it has pierced through alongside the head with a vessel that provides anapnoē (respiration) to the thigh; and it traverses the thigh alongside the bend toward the knee; and it sent down another alongside the groin, densely rooted and hard to reroute. The one extending through the muscle is coiled around the knee, and has run as a pipe a vessel through the bone at the top of the shin, which nourishes the marrow, and is channeled out through the lowest part of the shin, alongside the binding of the foot. It itself extends submerged through the kneecap into the inner part through the muscle of the shin, and it has interwoven through the inner ankle—thick and blood-filled—and there around the ankle and the tendon it has coiled hard-to-distinguish vessels. It itself has run underneath below the foot, beneath the instep. 17. And there weaving through and pressing a double blood-filled vessel into the great toe, it has bent back upward beneath the skin from the instep, and appears thickened alongside the outer ankle, and spreads upward alongside the fibula of the shin that is set opposite; alongside the calf it has made something like a sling; from there it extends alongside the inner part of the knee; it has also laid vessels upon the kneecap, and along the inner [surface] of the kneecap it has interwoven a concave vessel; if one works this [vessel], it very quickly draws together bilious ichor (bile-like fluid). It itself has traversed along the inner and hollow part of the knee; and it has produced also at the hollows of the knees many-coiled vessels, which extending from there along the sinews below the thigh are rooted into the testicles and the rectum, and around the sacrum—grown thin and unified—they are stretched. The one that has arrived from the inner part of the knee goes back up along the inner thigh to the groin, and through the hip on the far side toward the spine and the psoas muscle, holding outward—thick and broad and blood-filled—it extends upward toward the liver; and branching off a supreme blood-filled growth, it reaches toward the kidney and the right hepatic lobe. 18 [25] This vessel, having passed beneath the liver, is split into a thick vein; and this vein, bending back, grows into the thick part of the liver. That part of it which spreads over the surface has grown onto the visceral organ in which the bile resides, being many-rooted and interwoven through the liver; while the part running through its interior is channeled along. Two veins have spread out between the two broad lobes; and one, splitting through the summits and the skin, is drawn up from the navel; the other, pressing toward the spine and toward the kidney, has anchored into both the bladder and the genitals. Beginning to rise from the hip toward the lower belly, it has sent off many veins in various directions; and it has ringed the ribs and the vertebrae against the spine, and has cut these offshoots into the venous passages, and has wound around the intestines and the stomach. And those vessels extending from the lower belly toward the breasts, above the throat, and toward the tips of the shoulders, have spread out flat; while the vessel arriving at the thick part of the liver, having siphoned the bile upward, courses beneath the spine, making its way through the diaphragm. The vein from the left side, in all other respects rooted in the same nature as that on the right, when ascending from the left does not issue into the liver but grows into the spleen at the head situated in its thick part; from there it has sunk inward and has spread like a web through the spleen with blood-filled small veins; and the whole spleen is suspended from the omentum by its own small veins, having filled the omentum with blood. The veins from the head of the spleen, pressing against the spine, have passed through the diaphragm. From there, both the right and the left are driven downward under the lung; and, being blood-filled, they are channeled out beneath it and into it. 19 [10] Sparse in blood and slender are those arising from the lung on the inner side — it being porous by nature — directed toward the heart; being drawn from it as if milked, they are reined in around its ears and have flowed through into the hollow chambers within. Both the earlier veins and these latter ones discharge into it; for it is lodged in the narrowness of the passage as though holding the reins from every part of the body — which is why sensation is felt most of all in the chest, throughout the whole body. And changes of color come about as the heart constricts the veins and relaxes them: when it relaxes them, the colors become red and healthy-hued and translucent; when it draws them together, they become pale-green and livid; and such appearances shift according to the colors present in each person.